Child Development (1651) B.Ed Autumn 2021 Solved spring 2021

 Child Development (1651) B.Ed Autumn 2021 Solved, AIOU

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AIOU Solved Assignment 1&2 Code 1651 Autumn & Spring 2021

aiou sloved Assignment no 1 spring 2021

aiou sloved Assignment no 2 spring 2021 

aiou sloved Assignment no 1 Autumn 2021 

 aiou sloved Assignment no 2 Autumn 2021 

Child Development (1651) B.Ed Autumn 2021 Solved spring 2021

Question No 1

Identify and explain the factors that influence child development.

ü Brain development

ü Serve-and-return interactions

ü Executive function

ü Stress affects the brain

·       Brain development

Recent brain research has helped us better understand what kind of care growing children need. When you know how the brain works, it’s easier to understand what you can do to support your child.Just like a house needs a strong foundation to support the walls and the roof, your child’s brain needs a good base to support all future development. The most important time for your child’s brain development is during pregnancy and the early years. This is when the foundation for future learning, behavior, and health is set.

Brains are built: This is an illustration of different people standing on scaffolding. The team is working together to build a brain. Each individual is placing various pictures that symbolize elements for healthy brain development. An image of a heart, a home, and an apple are placed into a puzzle that fills out the image of a brain.

·       A thing to know about your child’s developing brain

Their brain starts to form very early in your pregnancy—babies are learning even before they’re born. Your child’s brain development is affected by both nature (what your child is born with; their inherited traits and abilities) and nurture (what your child experiences, the care they receive, and the relationships they have with people).

At birth, your baby’s brain is completely formed, but it’s only about ¼ the size of an adult’s brain. Even though your newborn’s brain contains billions of neurons, only a small number of them are connected. These neurons must be connected (or ‘wired’) together for the many parts of your child’s brain to communicate with each other, and for their brain to be able to communicate with other parts of the nervous system throughout their body.

Your child’s everyday experiences and relationships are what create these brain connections. Messages are sent to their brain through all of your child’s senses—sight, sound, taste, smell, touch, balance, and movement. The more often an experience happens, the stronger the brain connections become. Simple connections form first. These develop into pathways that are more complex. The connections make it possible for your child to grow, think and learn. A natural process removes brain connections that are not used often, so your child’s brain can work faster and in a more organized way. This process is called synaptic pruning.

The wiring of your child’s brain follows a predictable order and the process takes about 25–30 years. Their brain keeps adapting for the rest of their life. The early years are critically important because they set the foundation for all the brain development that follows. A solid foundation is the best start to life. To learn more about brain development, watch: How Brains Are Built: Core Story of Brain Development from the Alberta Family Wellness Initiative.

 

 

·       Serve-and-return interactions

Relationships form through everyday interactions. For healthy brain development, your child needs positive relationships with you, your partner, as well as other important people in their lives. Brain cell connections become healthier and stronger when you and your child have positive serve-and-return interactions. Serve-and-return interactions are like a game of tennis or volleyball, where the goal is to ‘keep the ball in the air’.

When your baby is little, they ‘serve the ball’ when they coo or lock eyes with you. You ‘return the serve’ when you smile back, talk gently and return their gaze. This game continues until your baby loses interest and turns away for a rest, then starts all over again when they are ready.Your child’s serve-and-return interactions with you and other people are important throughout your child’s life. These type of interactions build and strengthen the brain cell connections your child needs to learn new skills in all areas of development. Serve-and-return interactions will naturally become more complex as your child gets older. In each of the age-specific sections of this website, you’ll find a chart with examples of serve-and-return interactions you might see during your child’s different developmental stages:

·       Newborns: Birth – 2 months

·       Young babies: 2–6 months

·       Older babies: 6–12 months

·       Toddlers: 1 and 2 year olds

·       Pre Scholars: 3 and 4 year olds

·       Young children: 5 year olds

Once you know what to look for, you’ll add many more examples of your own. By spending time with your child, and learning what their cues and actions mean at every age, you’ll continue to find ways to build a healthy relationship with them. Watch Serve & Return from the Alberta Family Wellness Initiative.

·       Executive function

Imagine an air traffic control center at an airport that keeps track of all of the incoming and outgoing planes so that everything runs smoothly. Executive function works just like an air traffic control centre. Your child needs executive function skills to help them keep track of everything going on around them, pay attention to things that are important, and keep them from feeling overwhelmed. As a result, these skills help your child to:

·       Focus their thinking

·       Make sense of and use information

·       Change more easily from one activity to another

·       Stress affects the brain

Some stress is part of everyone’s healthy development—it’s needed to help your child learn how to adapt and helps to prepare them for future challenges. A typical example of a stressful situation for your child may be their toy being taken away by a playmate or when they receive an immunization. You support your child during times of stress when you: let them know you love them and are there to support them, no matter what help them learn ways to cope limit your child’s continued exposure to stress, when possible.

Toxic stress is a different kind of stress. It’s the result of ongoing hardships—things like abuse, neglect or addiction.

 

Question No 2

Explain the genetic foundation which effect child development.

What determines how a child develops? While it is impossible to account for each and every influence that contributes to who a child eventually becomes, what researchers can do is look at some of the most apparent factors.

These include things such as genetics, parenting, experiences, friends, family, education, and relationships. By understanding the role that these factors play, researchers are better able to identify how such influences contribute to development.

·       Overview

Think of these influences as building blocks. While most people tend to have the same basic building blocks, these components can be put together in an infinite number of ways. Consider your own overall personality.

·       Nature vs. Nurture

While some aspects of development may be strongly influenced by biology, environmental influences may also play a role. For example, the timing of when the onset of puberty occurs is largely the result of heredity, but environmental factors such as nutrition can also have an effect.

From the earliest moments of life, the interaction of heredity and the environment works to shape who children are and who they will become. While the genetic instructions a child inherits from their parents may set out a road map for development, the environment can impact how these directions are expressed, shaped or event silenced.

·       Prenatal Child Development

At its very beginning, the development of a child starts when the male reproductive cell, or sperm, penetrates the protective outer membrane of the female reproductive cell, or ovum. The sperm and ovum each contain chromosomes that act as a blueprint for human life. The genes contained in these chromosomes are made up of a chemical structure known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the genetic code, or instructions, that make up all life. Except for the sperm and ova, all cells in the body contain 46 chromosomes.

·       Environmental Influences

So how exactly do the genetic instructions passed down from both parent’s influence how a child develops and the traits they will have? In order to fully understand this, it is important to first distinguish between a child's genetic inheritance and the actual expression of those genes.

·       Gene Expression

Whether or not a gene is expressed depends on two different things: the interaction of the gene with other genes and the continual interaction between the genotype and the environment.Genetic Interactions: Genes can sometimes contain conflicting information, and in most cases, one gene will win the battle for dominance. Some genes act in an additive way. For example, if a child has one tall parent and one short parent, the child may end up splitting the difference by being of average height. In other cases, some genes follow a dominant-recessive pattern. Eye color is one example of dominant-recessive genes at work. The gene for brown eyes is dominant and the gene for blue eyes is recessive. If one parent hands down a dominant brown eye gene while the other parent hands down a recessive blue eye gene, the dominant gene will win out and the child will have brown eyes.

·       Genetic Abnormalities

Genetic instructions are not infallible and can go off track at times. Sometimes when a sperm or ovum is formed, the number of chromosomes may divide unevenly, causing the organism to have more or less than the normal 23 chromosomes. When one of these abnormal cells joins with a normal cell, the resulting zygote will have an uneven number of chromosomes. Researchers suggest that as many as half of all zygotes that form have more or less than 23 chromosomes, but most of these are spontaneously aborted and never develop into a full-term baby.In some cases, babies are born with an abnormal number of chromosomes. In every case, the result is some type of syndrome with a set of distinguishing characteristics.

·       Sex Chromosome Abnormalities

The vast majority of newborns, both boys and girls, have at least one X chromosome. In some cases, about 1 in every 500 births, children are born with either a missing X chromosome or an additional sex chromosome. Klinefelter syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Turner syndrome are all examples of abnormalities involving the sex chromosomes.Kleinfelter's syndrome is caused by an extra X chromosome and is characterized by a lack of development of the secondary sex characteristics and as well as learning disabilities.

 

 

Question No 3

How do children’s logical thinking development? Explain using Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

   DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

Learning to think critically may be one of the most important skills that today's children will need for the future. In today’s rapidly changing world, children need to be able to do much more than repeat a list of facts; they need to be critical thinkers who can make sense of information, analyze, compare, contrast, make inferences, and generate higher order thinking skills.

·       BUILDING YOUR CHILD'S CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS

Building critical thinking skills happens through day-to-day interactions as you talk with your child, ask open-ended questions, and allow your child to experiment and solve problems.

Here are some tips and ideas to help children build a foundation for critical thinking:Provide opportunities for play. Building with blocks, acting out roles with friends, or playing board games all build children’s critical thinking.

·       Pause and wait.

 Offering your child ample time to think, attempt a task, or generate a response is critical. This gives your child a chance to reflect on her response and perhaps refine, rather than responding with their very first gut reaction.

·       Don't intervene immediately.

 Kids need challenges to grow. Wait and watch before you jump in to solve a problem.

·       Ask open-ended questions.

Rather than automatically giving answers to the questions your child raises, help them think critically by asking questions in return: "What ideas do you have? What do you think is happening here?" Respect their responses whether you view them as correct or not. You could say, "That is interesting. Tell me why you think that." Help children develop hypotheses. Taking a moment to form hypotheses during play is a critical thinking exercise that helps develop skills. Try asking your child, "If we do taxis, what do you think will happen?" or "Let's predict what we think will happen next."

·       Encourage thinking in new and different ways.

By allowing children to think differently, you're helping them hone their creative problem solving skills. Ask questions like, "What other ideas could we try?" or encourage your child to generate options by saying, "Let’s think of all the possible solutions." Of course, there are situations where you as a parent need to step in. At these times, it is helpful to model your own critical thinking. As you work through a decision making process, verbalize what is happening inside your mind. Children learn from observing how you think. Taking time to allow your child to navigate problems is integral to developing your child's critical thinking skills in the long run.

 

 

 

 

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence.

 Piaget's stages are:

Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7

Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11

Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

ü The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations

Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listeningInfants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence). They are separate beings from the people and objects around them. They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

 

ü The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.

ü Concrete operational

Children are much less egocentric in the concrete operational stage. It falls between the ages of 7 to 11 years old and is marked by more logical and methodical manipulation of symbols.

The main goal at this stage is for a child to start working things out inside their head. This is called operational thought, and it allows kids to solve problems without physically encountering things in the real world.

ü Formal operational

Children 11 years old and older fall into Piaget’s formal operational stage. A milestone of this period is using symbols to understand abstract concepts. Not only that, but older kids and adults can also think about multiple variables and come up with hypotheses based on previous knowledge.

Piaget believed that people of all ages developed intellectually. But he also believed that once a person reaches the formal operational stage, it’s more about building upon knowledge, not changing how it’s acquired or understood.

Question No 4

What is social development and why is it important?

Social development is about improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can reach their full potential. The success of society is linked to the well-being of each and every citizen. Social development means investing in people. It requires the removal of barriers so that all citizens can journey toward their dreams with confidence and dignity. It is about refusing to accept that people who live in poverty will always be poor. It is about helping people so they can move forward on their path to self-sufficiency.

Every New Brunswick must have the opportunity to grow, develop their own skills and contribute to their families and communities in a meaningful way. If they are healthy, well-educated and trained to enter the workforce and are able to make a decent wage they are better equipped to meet their basic needs and be successful. Their families will also do well and the whole of society will benefit.

Learning must start early in life. By investing in early learning initiatives, we can ensure a greater degree of success amongst our citizens. Making sure that children get a good start in their education goes a long way to increasing their success later in life.

An affordable, high quality child care system is also needed for society to succeed. When people know that their children are being well taken care of, they can be more productive in their jobs. When employers have good employees their business is more likely to succeed. When businesses succeed, the economic situation of a community is improved. An investment today in good child care programs can provide many long term economic benefits for society.In addition, a safe affordable place to live is very important in helping people achieve self-sufficiency. It is the focus of family life; where families can live safely, nurture their children, build community relationships and care for aging parents. Without a decent place to live, it is difficult to function as a productive member of society.

Other investments in people that contribute to the economic prosperity of society include youth programs and services, post-secondary education, job creation, promotion of healthy, active living and safe and secure communitiesTo reduce poverty we need to take a social development approach and invest in our people. By investing in people we can reduce poverty. We need to go beyond looking at government to find ways to develop our most valuable resources, our people. We need to share responsibility with community organizations, businesses, universities and municipalities in the task of improving the well-being of all New Brunswickers and preventing and reducing poverty.

Newborn babies are highly dependent on their caregivers and the people in their environment. They need protection, nutrition and comfort. So it is not surprising that babies look for guidance from adults from birth onward. Developmental psychological research has shown that already hours after birth, babies look longer at human faces compared to objects. They can even distinguish their mother’s face from the faces of other women and have a preference for looking at their mother. A few weeks after birth, the caregiving of trusted and familiar people is rewarded by babies: social smiling begins. The smile no longer simply signals „I’m fine “but also „I’m glad you’re here“. A wonderful moment for parents.We are particularly interested in how infants and children perceive other people and learn from them. „Social learning “enables children to acquire languages; learn about opportunities and risks in the environment, about the functions of objects and much more. So in the first years of life, babies turn from newcomers with still limited visual acuity and little motoric abilities into alert young explorers who manage remarkably well to find their ways in the world.

We want to contribute to a better understanding of this fascinating development. The more we know about healthy development, the sooner we can find ways, to help children with difficulties inform parents and educators about developmental processes and create optimal learning environments for children.

Question No 5

     Explain Erikson’s theory of socio-emotional development.

According to Erickson, the socialization process consists of eight phases – the “eight stages of man.” His eight stages of man were formulated, not through experimental work, but through wide-ranging experience in psychotherapy, including extensive experience with children and adolescents from low – as well as upper – and middle – social classes. Each stage is regarded by Erikson as a “psycho social crisis,” which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated. These stages are conceived in an almost architectural sense: satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next and subsequent ones satisfactorily, just as the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor, which in turn must be structurally sound to support and the second story, and so on.

   Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development

1.    Learning Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust

 (Hope) chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child, well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful.

2.    Learning Autonomy versus Shame

(Will) the second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes occurs during early childhood, probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The “well – parented” child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud rather than Ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self – possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self – will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of “NO” rings through the house or the grocery store.

 3. Learning Initiative versus Guilt (Purpose)

 Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the “play age,” or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to imagine, broadening his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

4. Industry versus Inferiority (Competence)

Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what he calls the “school age,” presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame – and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. 5. Learning Identity versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) during the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of “Who am I?” But even the best – adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the youngster, and so on.

5. Learning Identity versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity)

During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of “Who am I?” But even the best – adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the youngster, and so on. Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with different – usually constructive – roles rather than adopting a “negative identity” (such as delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being “paralyzed” by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual identity – manhood or womanhood – is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a “psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and upper-class American children. They do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them.

6. Learning Intimacy versus Isolation (Love) the successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy – the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship.

7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care) In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively.

8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well-defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates-his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair.

 

These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are plausible and insightful descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are descriptions only. We possess at best rudimentary and tentative knowledge of just what sort of environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. Helping the child through the various stages and the positive learning that should accompany them is a complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or teacher knows. Search for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much of the research in the field of child development.

Socialization, then is a learning-teaching process that, when successful, results in the human organism's moving from its infant state of helpless but total egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity.